Schizophrenia and Dopamine Hypothesis Essay Example

Schizophrenia and Dopamine Hypothesis Essay Yale Alexia Abnormal Psychology 2013FA-PSY-241-1 Tuesday/Thursday 9a. m. 10/9/13 Schizophrenia And the Dopamine Hypothesis INTRO Men will always be mad and those who think the can cure them are the maddest of all. (Volaire, 1759) Schizophrenia, aka the cancer of psychology, has become a vast mystery for psychologist. It accounts for 80% of long-term hospital stays. Even with the conveniences of modern technology we still have yet to be able to discover the true cure for the disorder. There are several unique biological, environmental, and developmental factors that help influence the likelihood of obtaining Schizophrenia. One major influence making its way into spotlight is Dopamine. Multiple studies have shown that an abnormal level of the neurotransmitter Dopamine can indeed be related back to a significant increase in ones likelihood of being diagnosed with Schizophrenia (Creese, Burt, Snyder, 1976). Thus creating the dopamine hypothesis. There are numerous facts that help support the dopamine hypothesis as a significant cause to being diagnosed with Schizophrenia. The main supporting factors for the dopamine hypothesis include evidence from illicit drug use, neuroimaging, and a roup of drugs called phenothiazines. DEFINED Schizophrenia is a mental disorder in which your personal, social, and occupational lives deteriorate as a result from its characteristics that lead to a breakdown of cognitive, emotional, and motor responses. Symptoms of Schizophrenia usually begin to appear during young childhood. The most common symptoms are delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking/speech, social withdrawal, and loss of motivation and Judgment. We will write a custom essay sample on Schizophrenia and Dopamine Hypothesis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Schizophrenia and Dopamine Hypothesis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Schizophrenia and Dopamine Hypothesis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer There are three different categories that symptoms can be classified into: positive symptoms symptoms that appear to be in excess of ehavior, emotion, and/or bizarre additions to normal thoughts; negative symptoms symptoms that are in deficit when compared to normal thoughts, behaviors, and emotions; and lastly psychomotor symptoms symptoms dealing with unusual movements or gesturers. Both positive and negative symptoms are typically common, however, one or the other types will typically dominate patients (Keefe Eesley, 2012). ETIOLOGY The etiology of Schizophrenia is commonly attributed to genetics, but environmental factors such as, developmental complications and drug use, that also influence the occurrence rate. Finding an individuals main cause of the disorder can often prove challenging because of the difficulty in telling the separation between the effects of genetics and the environment (Picchioni, Murray, 2007). Having a first- degree relative will set you at a 6. 5% chance of being diagnosed with the disorder. It is thought that there is most likely numerous genes that go into play when it comes to Schizophrenia. There are no known major affecting genes that cause this disorder, but more likely a number of genes with their own small effect and unknown expression. This creates much difficulty when trying to pinpoint the specific related enes (McLaren, Silins, and Hutchingson, 2010). It is believed that people with Schizophrenia are more likely to be born during the winter or spring, if they live in the northern hemisphere. This is thought to be because, while pregnant, Mothers are put at an increased risk of viral exposure to the womb, by things such as infections and hypoxia. Stress and malnutrition can also lead to a slight increase in the risk of the development of Schizophrenia later on in life. As either a child or an adult living in an urban environment, especially when living in poverty, has been found to largely increase your chances of being diagnosed ith this disorder. Having a positive social life and living with supportive parents has been shown to increase the overall well being of the patient (Picchioni, Murray, 2007). The last major factor that influences the diagnosis of Schizophrenia is drug use. Around half of the people who are diagnosed with Schizophrenia also use and abuse drugs and or alcohol. Amphetamines, cocaine, and marijuana are thought to be the major contributors (Picchioni, Murray, 2007; McLaren, Silins, and Hutchingson, 2010). These drugs especially, are associated with the dopamine hypothesis, which will be iscussed later on in greater depth. Other drugs, such as alcohol, may possibly be used as Just a way to cope with the depression, boredom, and loneliness that often follow along with the disorder. RATE/INCIDENCE Approximately 1% of the worlds population is affected by this disorder. That means over 24 million people worldwide have had Schizophrenia at some point in their lives (Van Os J Kapur S, 2009). However, this rate can vary up to threefold according to geographical location. It is 1. 4 times more likely to occur in males than females and usually appears earlier in life for men. People who have biological elatives are at a heightened risk of obtaining Schizophrenia (Coon Mitterer, 2007). Having an identical twin or being the child of two parents with the disorder puts you at an 46%/48% chance of developing the disorder. DIANOSIS Observing ones behavior, as well as listening to the patients past reported experiences, is the most common method of diagnosis. According to the DSM-Vto be diagnosed with Schizophrenia, over a one-month period, you have to experience at least two separate symptoms long enough to become abnormal. At least one of these symptoms has to be delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speec h. In the evelopment of Schizophrenia there are three different stages: acute, residual, and prodromal stage (Barnett, 2009). The first stage of Schizophrenia is the prodromal stage. This stage refers to the year before the illness appears in which people start showing signs of the disorder. Often they start to isolate themselves from friends and family and have decreased motivation or bunted emotions. The second stage is the acute stage. In this stage someone will start experiencing psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, or overly disorganized behavior. This stage shows that the person has fully development the disorder. The third and final stage is the residual stage. This stage is very similar to the prodromal stage. People who are in this stage do not appear psychotic but they may still have strange beliefs and or other negative symptoms such as low energy or lack of emotions (American Medical Network, 2009). TREATMENT To help manage Schizophrenia patients are most often prescribed antipsychotic medications, usually along with psychological help and social support groups (Van Os J, Kapur S, 2009). Since the 1950s, when deinstitutionalization came about, long hospital stays have largely become a thing of the past, although sometimes they do till occur; which depending on the severity of the disorder, can be either voluntary or involuntary. Most antipsychotics reduce the positive symptoms in around 1-2 weeks. So that will get rid, or at least help control, all of the extra crazy sights and sounds. However, there is no significant improvement when it comes to the negative symptoms as well as most of the cognitive dysfunctions (Tandon, Keshavan, Nasrallah, 2008). As long as the patient stays on the medication they should have a largely decreased chance of relapse. Beyond 2-3 years research shows that the antipsychotics may become inconsistent with the significance of the benefits. Based on the costs, benefits, and risks of the medication, a person diagnosed with Schizophrenia would be prescribed with one of two different classes of antipsychotics; either typical, or atypical antipsychotics. Both classes have an equal dropout and relapse rate so it is very debatable as to which class is better than the other. As with many major medications there are separate negative side effects that are associated with the two classes. Antipsychotics in the typical class, such as Haldol, Thorazine, and Prolizin, often have a high rate of extrapyramidal side effects; he major one being tardive dyskinesia (TD)- causing involuntary movements most often affecting the facial region. Patients may not even notice these movements. The newer medications in the atypical class, such as Abilify, Risperdal, and Seroquel, have a much lower risk of TD, but patients will often have a significant increase in body weight gain. Also, if given at too high of a dosage, patients may experience social withdrawal as well as have body tremors/movements that get very close to resembling Parkinsons disease (National Institute Of Mental Health, 2006). PREVENTION Schizophrenia is a disorder with no reliable distinctions for the development of the disease (Cannon, Comblatt, Mcgorry, 2007). This creates an issue for early detection and prevention. There is indecisive evidence as to the effectiveness of early interventions to prevent Schizophrenia (Marshall, Rathbone, 2006). While still in the prodromal phase, it is uncertain that attempting to prevent Schizophrenia is of any benefit and therefore as of 2009 is not recommended. After a year, cognitive behavioral therapy is able to decrease the chance of psychosis in those patients that re of high risk of obtaining the disorder (Stafford MR, Jackson H, Mayo-Wilson E, Morrison AP, Kendall T, 2013). Another preventive measure, that is widely accepted, is staying away from drugs that are thought to be able to cause the disorder, such as meth, coke, and marijuana. This preventive method is also known as the Hugs Not Drugs method (Hugsnotdrugs. com, 2013). PROGNOSIS Schizophrenia can become extremely disabling. Being ranked as the 3rd highest disabling condition in the world, placing Schizophrenia higher up on the list than blindness and paraplegia (Ustun, 1999). Studies have shown that people who are iagnosed more at risk to commit suicide. However, this higher risk of suicide is not significant being as low as only 4. % most likely; most commonly occurring at the beginning of facilitation when they are undergoing extreme stress (Hor k, Taylor M, 2010). Although life expectancy has increased in recent decades, people with Schizophrenia on average have a 12-15 year decrease in life expectancy compared to the normal population. There are three major factors that contribute to the lo wer life expectancy: a lazy/low activity life style, obesity, and smoking cigarettes (Van Os J, Kapur, 2009). Of people diagnosed with Schizophrenia, about % have a continuing disability and problems with relapses. About 17 million people in the world are living with a moderate or severe disability from the disorder. However there are patients that do recover completely and many others are still able to function well in everyday society. Very often people with Schizophrenia are also heavy smokers. Anywhere from 80-90% of Schizophrenic people smoke cigarettes. This is very significant compared to the 20% of people who smoke from the general population. When Schizophrenic people smoke, they tend to smoke very heavy and hard as well as ypically only smoking cigarettes with high nicotine content (APA, 2002, pg. 304). Excess tobacco smoking will of course lead to a higher health risk that contributes to the lower life expectancy. There has yet to be an exact solid answer as to why Schizophrenic people more commonly smoke cigarettes. DOPAMINE D2 The Dopamine hypothesis is a model that states that certain factors, which of whom have been known to create abnormally excessive levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine, have been linked to a significantly increased risk of being diagnosed with Schizophrenia. These abnormal levels of dopamine result from eurons firing too often that make use of dopamine as a neurotransmitter. This causes an uneven shift in the two-way communication within the brain, and sends too many messages at once, in turn producing symptoms that are common to Schizophrenia (Grace, Abi-Dargham, 2011). As more and more studies are being completed, this hypothesis is continuing to provide an evolving basis to help psychologists understand as to how this disorder originates, and how to create better treatments for patients. This theory however, does not solely hold excessive dopamine levels as an absolute and complete explanation for Schizophrenia. The ver activation of the D2 receptors seem to also be a widespread effect of abnormal chemical synapsis. This theory obtained further support during the mid-1970s when Creese made the connection that antipsychotic drugs had a significant ability to block dopamine D2 receptors (creese, Burt, snyder, 1976). METHAMPHETAMINES In recent decades Amphetamines, especially crystal meth, have become widely popular with the more deviant of our societies. There are of course many negative repercussions that affect ones health with the abuse of methamphetamines. The worst of which, is methamphetamines highly addictive properties. When dministered Methamphetamine at significant dosages, the drug becomes neurotoxic specifically to dopamine neurons (Cruickshank, Dyer, 2009). The connection wasnt made until 1966 when Rossum proposed that the hyperactivity of dopamine transmission could responsible for the disorder of Schizophrenia (Rossum, 1966). Rossum also looked back a few years and used Carlsson and Lindqvists research on mice, finding that dopamine plays an important role in the functioning of the extrapyramidal motor system (Carlsson, Lindqvist, 1963). In a study that reviewed hospital records of patients, that were diagnosed with drug dependence/abuse, and dmitted between 1990-2000, they found that people who were hospitalized for methamphetamines had 1. 5-3x more likely chance of being diagnosed at the end of the study with Schizophrenia (Wood, 2011). This statistic of diagnosis being up to 3x more likely to occur with meth use should alone be able to make the effects very noticeable. Since methamphetamines create an influx of dopamine levels, you can easily make the connection that dopamine and Schizophrenia are closely related. During an interview in 2004, Dr. Heather Keizer, a psychiatrist, referred to methamphetamine as the on switch for Schizophrenia (Cudworth, 2005). She also described how even after they (the clinicians) could get the patient cleaned up, and eliminate the drugs from their system but theyd still be psychotic. Often within the year she would diagnose them with Schizophrenia. Again this provides substantial evidence that methamphetamines effect on dopamine is responsible for numerous diagnosis of Schizophrenia. CANNABIS Cannabis has a similar affect on dopamine levels, in turn making it plausible to relate the use of the drug to Schizophrenia. The percentage of people who have been diagnosed Schizophrenia and make use of cannabis is higher than that of the eneral population (Lynch, Rabin, and George, 2012). A whopping 25% of patients with Schizophrenia can be diagnosed with either cannabis abuse or dependence. Information from several cohort studies provided addition evidence of dopamines link to Schizophrenia. Their findings showed that when compared to nonusers, people who used cannabis had a 40% more likely chance of psychosis. This risk was also dose-related, showing that psychotic symptoms had up to a 200% increased chance of appearing in users who made use of cannabis on the regular (Lynch, Rabin, and George, 2012). Again this goes to show that drugs affecting dopamine levels have a significantly obvious relation to an increase in diagnosis of Schizophrenia. If we look at the classical study, started in 1969 of a little more than 50,000 Swedish conscripts, we can have a glimpse at some of the more extreme links cannabis has to Schizophrenia. They found that if you used cannabis more than 50 times, you were nearly SEVEN times more likely to eventually develop Schizophrenia (Andreasson, Allebeck, and Rydberg, 1987). This statistic shows how even a small cannabis consumption can have adverse effects and has more than enough power to shock ny associate of mine that regularly uses cannabis; as well as making them prone to question thetr sanity. PHENOTHIAZINES Phenothiazines are the largest of the five 5 major classes of neuroleptic antipsychotic drugs. Theyre known for their antipsychotic properties and are often associated with severe side effects. These antipsychotics have been found to antagonize dopamine binding, specifically at the D2 dopamine receptors (Creese, Burt, and Snyder, 1976). This effect causes a reduction in the positive psychotic symptoms that people with Schizophrenia experience. So yet again you have a substance influencing Schizophrenia by affecting the brains dopamine receptors. These findings lead to the eventual usage of other antipsychotic classes that included drugs such as Haloperidol. Patients with Schizophrenia are almost always treated with a prescription of antipsychotics, and why is that? Because they work; and the reason they have been proven effective at combating the symptoms of Schizophrenia is because they influence and block dopamine receptors. Which of course helps support the legitimacy of the dopamine hypothesis. NEUROIMAGING Neuroimaging is used as a research tool to measure certain aspects of the brain nd specific mental functions. This comes in use when observing the effects of drugs on the brain. This method came about in the early 1980s and made many improvements on our knowledge of how substances affect our body. This came in use in providing evidence for the dopamine hypothesis, when it was used during a study done in 1986. By comparing neuroimages of a normalized control group to that of people diagnosed with Schizophrenia, they were able to indicate to effects of amphetamines on the brain. They found that people diagnosed with Schizophrenia had increased levels of dopamine, especially in the striatum, when compared to non- sychotic individuals Oacobs, Silverstone, 1986). These images prove that over activity of dopamine is directly linked to being diagnosed with Schizophrenia. CONCLUSION Schizophrenia is an extremely damaging disorder, in which psychologists still have much to learn about the etiology and treatments. In the United States alone, the disorder cost the country nearly $63 billion in 2002 (Wu Eq, 2002). In recent decades studies have conclusively shown that excessive activity in D2 receptors is definitely associated with the onset of Schizophrenia. Support for the dopamine hypothesis is idely shown and proved by studies done on illicit drug use, and the class of drugs called phenothiazines, as well as the development of neuroimaging help provide substantial evidence. With this vast amount of factual information, it is hard to argue against the legitimacy of the dopamine hypothesis. Lastly, the reoccurring motif that you should take home if you want to avoid becoming Schizophrenic is: Dont do drugs. WORKS CITED Cudworth, Laura. Crystal Meth and Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia. com. Schizophrenia Daily News Blog, 6 July 2005. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. Wood, Janice. Heavvy Meth Use May Up Risk of Schizophrenia I Psych Central News. Psych Central. com. PsychCentral, 9 Nov. 2011. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. Freeman, David. Methamphetamine Tied to Schizophrenia. Cbsnews. com. CBS News, 8 Nov. 011. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. Comer, Ronald J. Fundamentals of Abnormal Psychology. New York: Worth, 2014. Print. Keefe Eesly, 2012, Neurocognitive Impairments. J. A. Lieberman, T. S. Stroup, D. O. Perkins, Essentials of Schizophrenia. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. 5th ed. Washington, D. C. : American Psyc hiatric Association, 2013. Print. Van Os, J. , and S. Kapur. Schizophrenia. NCBI. U. S. National Library of Medicine, 22 Aug. 2009. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. Voltaire. Goodreads. com. Goodreads, n. d. Web. 28 Oct. 2013. Coon, D. Mitterer, 1. 0. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior (1 lth ed. ). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Stages of Schizophrenia. Health. am. American Medical Network, 11 May 2009. Web. 25 Oct. 2013. Cannon TD, Cornblatt B, McGorry P. The empirical status of the ultra high-risk (prodromal) research paradigm. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 2007 Marshall M, Rathbone J. Early intervention for psychosis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2006 Stafford MR, Jackson H, Mayo-Wilson E, Morrison AP, Kendall T. Early interventions to prevent psychosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ (Clinical research ed. ). 2013 Jan 18 Clothing Consignment Program. Hugs Not Drugs. Web. 28 Oct. 2013. www. hugsnotdrugs. com Ustun TB. Multiple-informant Ranking Of the Disabling Effects Of Different Health Conditions in 14 Countries. The Lancet. 1999 Hor k, Taylor M. Suicide and schizophrenia: a systematic review of rates and risk factors.. Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England). 2010 Nov. 24 American Psychiatric Association. Task Force on DSM-IV. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental isorders: DSM-IV-TR. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 304 Becker, T. , and R. Kilian. Psychiatric Services for People with Severe Mental Illness across Western Europe: What Can Be Generalized from Current Knowledge about Differences in Provision, Costs and Outcomes of Mental Health Care? onlinelibrarywiley. com. Wiley Online Library, 23 Jan. 2006. Web. 3 Nov. 2013. Tandon, R. , M. Keshavan, and H. Nasrallah. Schizophrenia, Just the Facts: What We Know in 2008Part 1 : Overview. Schizophrenia Research 100. 1-3 (2008): 4-19. Print. Side Effects of Medications for Schizophrenia I Psych Central. Psych Central. com. National Institute Of Mental Health, 2006. eb. 01 NOV. 2013. Picchtont MM, Murray RM. Schizophrenia. BMJ. 2007. Web. 15 Nov. 2013. McLaren, Silins, and Hutchingson. Assessing Evidence For A Causal Link Between Cannabis and Psychosis. National Center for Biotechnology Information. U. S. National Library of Medicine, 21 Jan. 2010. Web. 01 Nov. 2013. Creese, Burt, and Snyder. Dopamine Receptor Binding Predicts Clinical and Pharmacological Potencies of An tischizophrenic Drugs. Sciencemag. org. Science AAAS, 30 Apr. 1976. Web. 12 Nov. 2013. Cruickshank, and Dyer. A Review Of the Clinical Pharmacology of Methamphetamine. National Center for Biotechnology Information. U. S. National Library of Medicine, 29 Apr. 2009. Web. 02 Nov. 2013. Carlsson A, Lindqvist M. Effect Of Chlorpromazine Or Haloperidol On Formation of 3Methoxytyramine and Normetanephrine In Mouse Brain. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) . 1963 Jan 1. Nov. 14. 2013. Rossum. Significance of Dopamine-receptor Blockade for the Mechanism of Action of Neuroleptic Drugs. PubMed. gov. U. S. National Library of Medicine, Apr. 1966. Web. 13 Nov. 2013. Abi-Dargham, and Grace. 20. Dopamine and Schizophrenia. Onlinelibrarywiley. com. Wiley Online Library, 8 Mar. 2011. Web. 04 Nov. 2013. Wu EQ. The economic burden of schizophrenia in the United States in 2002. J Clin Psychiatry. 14 Nov. 2013. Lynch, Rabin, and George. The Cannabis-psychosis Link. PsychiatricTimes. com. Psychiatric Times, 12 Jan. 2012. Web. 02 Nov. 2013. Andreasson, Allebeck, and Rydberg. Cannabis and Schizophrenia. A Longitudinal Study of Swedish Conscripts. PubMed. gov. U. S. National Library of Medicine, 26 Dec. 1987. web. 05 NOV. 2013. Jacobs, D. , and T. Silverstone. Dextroamphetamine-induced Arousal in Human Subjects as a Model for Mania. Psychological Medicine 16. 02 (1986): 323. Print.

Mandatory College essays

Mandatory College essays Today, many institutions face several problems such as low graduation rates, below average or failing academic marks, and students who simply do not want to focus on school anymore. A solution to the unemployment crisis and as a means of raising the standard of education in the Unites States, a bill being sponsored by several senators would entail two years of college for all students in search of employment after college. As a result, more effort would be applied in school resulting in better marks for the student and for the institution. Students would have the opportunity to focus more seriously on school rather than being concerned about seeking employment because one would almost be guaranteed an occupation after college. This bill would have all future high school graduates head off directly to college decreasing the drop-out rate and developing a sense of responsibility and maturity. Also, better jobs with higher pay would be easier to take hold of by better-qualified, educate d persons. Therefore, a bill proposing three years of mandatory college would not only help solve the unemployment problem in the United States, it would raise the standard of education and help qualified persons find employment after a strong educational background has been established. If students would be aware of the consequences of dropping out of high school or college before the third year of college, they simply would not do it. The bill would clearly state that no students would be allowed to drop out of high school or college before the third year of college, and no one would be permitted to hold a job unless he or she has completed two years of compulsory college. In this case, more effort would be applied toward finishing well in school with good enough marks to attend college. This would not only help the students but the institution, as well, because high marks from students equal a higher success rate for the school. It is like many other...

Project Plan for an Online Music Store Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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AMERICAN HISTORY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Case Grading Schema (NA) Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Technical And Vocational Education

Technical And Vocational Education The development of Technical and Vocational Education and Training has clearly been seen as a key to national poverty reduction and socio-economic development in Cambodia, as defined in the Rectangle Strategy of the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) and the five-year National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) 2006-2010. These show a commitment to skills development. The National TVET Development Plan, 2006-2011, also identifies the TVET sector as an important element in alleviating poverty, promoting peace, conserving the environment, improving the quality of life for all, and helping achieve sustainable development in Cambodia. However, Cambodias current TVET system is facing several critical issues such as: lack of access to formal training on a national basis, weak links with industry, lack of entrepreneurial focus, poor quality control, inadequate institutional financing, low rates of information and communication technology (ICT) usage and low capacity of TVET teachers, which h ave limited the quantity and quality of system outputs for years (e.g., Asian Development Bank [ADB], 2009; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2004b; International Project on Technical and Vocational Education [UNEVOC], 1997). With the critical importance of the TVET sector, the TVET curriculum must be well prepared for the success of students at the workplace. It can mean the difference between success and failure for TVET students in terms of theoretical knowledge and technical skills as well as being abreast with new technologies in the workplace (African Union, 2007). Similarly, Ben-Peretz (2009) specified the school curriculum as one of three critical domains of education, which should prepare students for their future success. As reported by United Nations Development Program (UNDP) (2011) one of the most vital aspects of education is to produce a workforce which is skillful and able to gain returns on their education and for the overall economy when they are in their careers. Therefore, the education system must be able to understand the needs and necessities of the economy and prepare learners for their economic lives (UNDP, 2011). However, TVET curricula have not focused their relevance to the requirements of the labor market in many countries; and in other nations, for various reasons, employers or managers may prefer to hire unskilled workers or academic graduates and provide on-the-job training programs (Maclean Lai, 2011). There do not seem to be strong gains and work advancement in Cambodia (UNDP, 2011). Additionally, the balance between theory and practice has shifted in recent years. There seems to be a case about the (under)graduates perceptions of the relevance of TVET curriculum to their existing jobs. However, this anecdotal information was only heard second-hand from employers. That is, many employers in Cambodia have complained about the curriculum mismatch that most graduates from universities and technical schools are not well equipped with knowledge and skills needed at workplace, especially soft skills (ADB, 2009; UNDP, 2011). Actually, the importance of survey of (under)graduates perceptions of their study programs helps to improve the quality of TVET curriculum, and could be important for TVET curriculum reform as conducted in many countries (e.g., Lubasha Tripathi, 2012; Singh Singh, 2008). Indeed, the value of surveying the perceptions of students on the relevance of the study program is something that the school committee should consider as being of practical importance to our own educational institution. The lack of feedback from students may probably have been problematic to the school curricular that were intended to offer knowledge and skills for the world of work. Since there is little information about students perceptions on the curricular in Cambodian TVET especially at my workplace, my study on this topic will serve as a helpful source for TVET curriculum development and improvement and brings the school to success in filling gaps between the curriculum mismatch and the needs of the industr ies. The study of student interests will focus on graduates of a TVET institution, which is located in Phnom Penh and offers educational and training services from certificate levels to bachelor degrees in business and engineering studies. The study will be conducted in Phnom Penh, and a group of graduates of civil engineering field between the academic years 2011-12 will be contacted for questionnaires and individual interview. Those graduates work in different job positions and in different companies. The survey research will help to inform the leaders of the institution to look at the importance of student survey on the relevance of TVET curricular and the result will best serve for the school curriculum reform. Statement of Problem The mismatch between education and employment is critically concerning to many related stakeholders. They are also concerned that most universities and TVET institutions have provided knowledge and skills, which are not relevant to industries (ADB, 2009; UNDP, 2011). Therefore, as in many countries, Cambodian graduates find it difficult to deal with the jobs available in labor market when their knowledge and skills are far different from what they have experienced in schools (e.g., Lubasha Tripathi, 2012; Singh Singh, 2008). The perceptions from students are often neglected by many universities and TVET schools in Cambodia; that is why study programs are often found out of date in the current world of work where graduates find it hard to enter. The student voice is often silenced, but it can be regarded as a key mirror to reflect the good match of school curriculum and the industry needs. Moreover, the irrelevance of school curricula is the critical issue faced by many educational institutions in Cambodia (ADB, 2009; UNDP, 2011). Therefore, the knowledge and skills needed by employers cannot be matched when employers hire graduates to perform the jobs. Thus, there are some frustrations for employers to employ graduates who have the knowledge and skills which are irrelevant to their needs. Many employers have complained about the knowledge and skills provided at schools while graduates have expressed their discontentment about what they have learned from schools. Research Question Given this background to the study, the research study will propose the following research question, in order to explore and examine undergraduates perceptions of the relevance of TVET study programs toward their current jobs: What perceptions do graduates in a civil engineering degree (the academic year 2011-12) at one Cambodian Institution hold in terms of the relevance of their studies to their current jobs? Significance of the Research Study The focal findings of this research study will contribute to the quality of school curriculum development, and to the determination of the relevance of the study programs in terms of providing students with skills and knowledge required in the world of work in the field of civil engineering. Specifically, the study will be a helpful reference for the development of TVET quality improvements. Furthermore, the result will provide important information to relevant stakeholders in the TVET sector in order to help create the TVET stream as a main tool for equipping people with high knowledge, skills and competence for their employment and employability in the competitive world. Data in the study will hopefully be utilized for the improvement of curriculum and will also be used to determine areas of weaknesses. The findings can be used as a tool to provide instructors to better master their teaching practices and to aid TVET institutions to create a database on students perceptions of thei r study programs. In order to make effective changes in offering any study programs, it is vital to receive feedback from students who are involved in the specific programs. Hopefully, this survey study will be a valuable asset, and its findings will also serve as a supportive document for researchers from different fields of study to use and build their foundation knowledge of TVET students perceptions of the quality and relevance of study programs to job industries in the TVET system. Chapter Two Literature Review By using the search engine Google Scholar and the James Cook University Library search engine with key terms including: the perceptions of TVET students, the purpose of higher education and further education, the use of student feedback and survey, the quality of higher education and further education, the role of higher education (HE) and TVET, the relevance of study programs to industries, and TVET, I have found and downloaded many useful materials for my literature review of my topic. Although some materials seem to be out of date, they are still useful for the research study, because they can give an overview on the topic, and they can work as a foundation of knowledge to support the literature review. The Role of Higher Education in Preparing Undergraduates for Workforce The international context. An article by Haveman and Smeeding (2006) stated that most Americans expect the nations colleges and universities to promote the aim of social mobilization to make it possible for a student with capability to succeed. According to Mortese (2003), higher education can serve as a model of sustainability by fully integrating all aspects of campus life that students have experienced for their future lives. Furthermore, higher education has become a major driver of economic competitiveness in an increasingly knowledge-driven global economy when the world has faced many matters (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2010). To improve employment skills calls for quality teaching and holistic approaches within universities (OECD, 2010; Ben-Peretz, 2009). National and transnational discussions like the Bologna Process, regarding state regulations and incentives, as well as competition among private and state-run institutions all urge universities and educational and te chnical providers to put quality teaching on their agenda (OECD, 2010). In addition, national quality assurance agencies push for reflection on the subject, even if their influence is controversial. Since higher education systems are increasingly diversifying, society is increasingly concerned about the quality of study programs offered to their consumers. This is not only the case in the academic stream, but is the case in the TVET stream. As many relevant stakeholders have recognized the importance of the study program in preparing students for jobs, Lauglo (2006) explained that TVET curricular refer to deliberate interventions to bring about learning which would make people more productive (or simply adequately productive) in designated areas of economic activity (e.g., economic sectors, occupations, specific work tasks) (p. 11). This is because TVET has its great potential to enhance human capabilities and enlarge peoples choices (Ayuba and Pascal, n.d.). Therefore, the education system must be able to understand the needs and necessities of the economy and prepare learners for their economic lives (UNDP, 2011). Additionally, Klimek (2010) noticed that a skill refers to an ability to perform a particular mental or physical activity that may be developed through vocational training or practice. Klimek (2010) also noted that vocational education and training provides people with occupational or work-related knowledge and skills. TVET also includes programs which provide the basis for subsequent vocational programs (p. xxviii). Therefore, TVET curricular are designed and developed as an education alternative to prepare students for the world of work (Klimek, 2010; Ayuba Pascal, n.d.). The changing demands of the workforce in the 21st century have created great challenging problems for TVET providers to respond quickly and efficiently to the continually changing skills requirements of the industries (Rafik, Treadwell, Triki, Gupta, Najah, n.d.). This is important if developed countries are to stay competitive and challenging but it is even more important for developing countries to catch up and fill the gap with the industrialized world (Rafik et al., n.d.). These challenges have resulted in growing debates and demanding solutions on developing better and more effective TVET systems that satisfy the national needs (Rafik et al., n.d.). The Cambodian context. The state of the higher education system in Cambodia, consisting of both university education and vocational and technical training, is largely formed by three factors: very disparate organization mechanisms, poor quality output, and low enrolment (UNDP, 2011). These three factors are greatly slowing down the advancement of higher education and more capable human resources in the whole country, and there should be a major concentrated point when undertaking reforms in education. A total number of eleven ministries and agencies which provide higher education service thus have access to the public education budgets of Cambodia (UNDP, 2011). The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MoEYS) and the Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training (MoLVT) are the two most important ministries regarding higher education in Cambodia, and while the Cambodian Education Law states that MoEYS is responsible for general, higher and vocational education, it does not provide any explanation for the r ole of MoLVT, which has resulted in a high level of challenges, and hardship in developing strong cooperation links between these Ministries in providing educational and training services to learners (UNDP, 2011). Understandably, this makes coordination of the higher education system very difficult for the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) to take actions on this issue. There are 38 public TVET institutions spread over 24 provinces of Cambodia under the Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training; and many NGOs, large-and-small enterprises, local centers, and other relevant stakeholders also operate TVET practice on a very small and localized scale with few exceptional cases (National TVET Development Plan, 2008). However, NGOs move in and out of skills training, depending on donor funds availability and/or donor interest. At present, there are approximately 12 national NGOs that run institution-based skills training courses (National TVET Development Plan, 2008). The public TVET provision does not fully meet the need for basic and mid-level skills in the formal and informal economies, of NGOs and other local private centers, like Don Bosco schools, TAYAMA Business school, and EDC Training Center help to fill gaps. Lack of access to formal training on a national basis, weak links with industry, lack of entrepreneurial focus, poor quality control, and inadequate institutional financing continue to limit the quantity and quality of system outputs. Pich (2010) indicated a number of students are smaller in the TVET system than that in the academic stream while the employers need technical knowledge and skills for their business practices. This is the mismatch between higher education and the needs of industries, concerned by many stakeholders if the availability of solutions is not at hand (UNDP, 2011). In summary, we can say that the quality in TVET in Cambodia is low. There should be coordination amongst these ministries to link the educational services to match the requirements of the industries while the relevance of curricular seems to be low when graduates tend to work (UNDP, 2011; ADB, 2009). The Use of Student Feedback for Curriculum Development in Higher Education The international context. Authorities in higher and TVET education often use student feedback as a mechanism to improve course content and delivery. In the TVET sector internationally, survey questionnaires have been used to explore stakeholder perceptions of the quality of TVET education and of the match between the skills of graduates and the needs of industry. For Munro (2008), it is ideal that feedback results are used to assert the strengths and find out areas of improvements in organization. As the practice of survey research is important, Lubasha and Tripathi (2012) surveyed stakeholders perceptions in VET programs in Tanzania, which are relevant to the quality all stakeholders may think, while Singh and Singh (2008) mainly focused on employability skills in Malaysia. Both studies have aimed at the improvement of study programs offered at educational and training institutions in order to perceive the quality of education and training as the key for graduates to be employable after they graduate from schools (Lubasha Tripathi, 2012; Singh Singh, 2008). In the study, Lubasha and Tripathi (2012) found that the determinants of quality in the VET programs such as the quality of VET programs, the relevance of VET programs to employment trends and entrepreneurship, and the perception of delivering the quality VET programs, which are critical for improving the quality of education provided by VET programs in Tanzania. The survey result of Singh Singh (2008) indicated that si gnificantly employers tend to hire local graduates from public universities to non-public graduates. This is because they believe that public graduates have the knowledge and skills they need for their business. Another survey study of 434 TVET graduates in Ghana which was done by Dasmani (2011) indicated that limited teaching and learning facilities for instructors and learners, large class sizes, and weak linkages with employers can lead to poor training and education of students. Dasmani (2011) added that this lack of preparation for the job entries put more pressure and working place difficulties to those graduates. This means that the survey finding is not only important for universities, but it also helps to inform TVET institutions about the perceptions of employers and students whether the TVET programs are at best quality to fill the gaps. It can also serve as an informant in offering better quality TVET programs. Therefore, many countries (e.g., Australia, England, Wales, and so forth) have created specialized research centers for VET and HE (Chalmers, 2007) and many international conferences are organized each year to disseminate and share the results of research in this area, in order to help the TVET sector to be flexible in the world of work (Rafik et al., n.d.). Rafik et al. (n.d.) also added that the main aims of this survey research are: (a) to investigate the current skills gaps in the Libyan manufacturing sector; (b) to make recommendations to the national TVET providers to enhance the skills they provide; and (c) to make recommendations to establish systems that improves the responsiveness of the TVET providers to the emergent needs of the industry (p. 1). Like the above points by Rafik et al. (n.d.), Chalmers (2007) claimed that experience, satisfaction and engagement of each student can be reached through using survey practice. Additionally, Chalmers (2007) recognized that using national student surveys are intended to demonstrate trustfulness and worthwhileness of study programs, and to explicitly articulate a particular view on what constitutes the quality of teaching and learning through student perceptions. Therefore, how the survey results can be used for the evidence-based curriculum development and improvement (Chalmers, 2007; Rafik et al, n.d.). The Cambodian context. As discussed in the global context, the survey of student feedback or perceptions is a useful tool in order to make school curricular change in according to the needs of industries. However, at this Cambodian TVET institutions, the survey of students perceptions and feedback is not yet conducted although survey research can give the school a great deal of information from labor market and industries. Because no surveys have been done or published on student perceptions in Cambodia, it is difficult to find the literature review to support the research study. As seen recently at the Cambodian TVET institution, the school management team has used the telephone survey on graduates whether those graduates hold job positions. The result of the telephone survey has been kept secretly. Furthermore, student surveys on teacher teaching have been done, but no survey on student perceptions on the relevance of the study program. Although information from student feedback can help the school make reform the school curriculum in order to keep abreast with the needs of industries, this case is absent from the school. The action of keeping old curricular is the weak point that should be urgently considered if the school is in the competitive world of providing technical services to students. Chapter Three Methodology As the topic of this study suggests, the study is a type of a survey research. Survey research is sometimes used by schools or other stakeholders of the related fields in order to get feedback from graduates, and which can be excellent vehicles for measuring opinions and orientations in a large population (Rubin Babbie, 2011). In order to get a deep understanding of perceptions of TVET graduates through survey research, this study will use the qualitative and quantitative data collection methods to get both primary and secondary data. The use of mixed methods is to build the synergy and strength that exists between quantitative and qualitative research methods to understand a phenomenon more fully that is possible using either quantitative or qualitative alone (Gay, Mills Airsian, 2009, p. 462). Creswell (2009) also highlighted that most researchers use a mixed methods design because they want to enlarge understanding by integrating both qualitative and quantitative research, or th ey want to better understand, explain or build the results from this approach. In this research, the following sampling methods, data collection methods, limitations of methods, data analysis, ethical issues, and other cases will be raised and discussed in detail in order to capture the practice of the whole research methodology of the study. Sampling Methods Berg (2009) indicated that the rationale of using of subjects is to make inference about some larger population from a smaller one-the sample (p. 48). That is, it is important in quantitative research that researchers keenly consider the probability sampling method (Berg, 2009). However, for qualitative research, sampling is the process of selecting a small number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals chosen will be good key informants (e.g., collaborators, co-researchers) who will contribute to the researchers understanding of a given phenomenon (Gay et al., 2009, p. 135). Since a deep understanding of participants perspectives creates the very core of a qualitative research study, the researcher will use a purposive sampling method (one of nonprobability sampling techniques); that is, the researcher relies on his or her expert judgment to select a typical sample of the population (Gay et al., 2009; Singleton Straits, 2005). This is also because each participant is believed to be thoughtful, informative, articulate, and experienced with the area of research topic (Gay et al., 2009, p. 135). Therefore, the researcher will use homogenous sampling which is selecting participants who are very similar in experience, perspective, or outlook; this produces a narrow, homogeneous sample and makes data collection and analysis simple (Gay et al., 2009, p. 137). As indicated above, the participants are ex-students who graduated with a civil engineering degree in the academic years 2011-2012, and they are currently employees holding various positions at different companies. Thus, the researcher can purposefully access the participants in order to get the deep understanding of their opinions about the quality and relevance of their study program of civil engineering and the needs of knowledge and skills from the employers. As the purpose and importance are clearly explained by the researcher, the participants will be asked to volunteer in the research study. With this regard, they are believed to have a deep understanding of the relevance of their study programs to their current jobs. With the purposive selection of a group of graduates with a civil engineering degree in years 2011-2012, the participants with their current jobs are strongly believed to be best for the research topic. The researcher hopes that the participants will be able to give the truths about their study program relevance to the needs of employers. However, the limitation of this selection method will not be able to make a wide generalization of the whole population of the school because a number of participants will be small and limited to the field of engineering (Gay et al., 2009; Berg, 2009). Data Collection Methods The survey research method is sometimes used by many schools in order to get feedback from graduates, and it can be an excellent tool for measuring opinions and orientations in large populations (Rubin Babbie, 2011). With the purpose of getting the views of undergraduates about the relevance of their study program to the needs of employers, the following research methods will be used in order to gather important data from the field. Questionnaires. A questionnaire method is widely useful to many researchers in both the private and public sectors because questionnaires can conveniently be given or sent to relevant individuals to answer or complete a number of questions, and respondents are asked to return questionnaires (Kothari, 2004; Singleton et al., 2005). They are convenient because questionnaires can easily be offered to the respondents, and the respondents can answer the questions on their own when they have enough time to complete the whole questionnaires. Many researchers have also used the questionnaire method because questionnaires are low-cost, accessible to larger participants, extensively geographic, and free from bias from researchers (Kothari, 2004; Creswell, 2009). Kothari (2004) and Gay et al. (2009) showed that a survey is a vehicle for collecting data describing one or more characteristics of a specific population by asking members a series of questions using questionnaire forms. In spite of the wide use of questionnaires, Kothari (2004) pointed out the main limitations of using questionnaires as follows: (a) low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires and bias due to no-response is often indeterminate; (b) it can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating; (c) the control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent; (d) there is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched; (e) there is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult; (f) it is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative; and (g) this method is likely to be the slowest of all (p. 101). In light of the above reasons, the researcher will carefully prepare the general form, the question sequence, and question formulation and words in the structured questionnaires as the researcher is not experienced with the use the survey questionnaires (Kothari, 2004). In the questionnaires, the researcher will focus on the following points: demographic data, the quality of study programs, the relevance of the study programs to the jobs, and the participants perceptions of their jobs in terms of study programs. These points will help the researcher to answer the research questions about understanding the perceptions of undergraduates about the relevance of their study programs to their current jobs. With help of a lecturer from Civil Engineering Department and a list of graduates of civil engineering degree in years 2011-2012, the researcher will contact graduates through phone calls and emails in order for volunteering for answering and completing the questionnaires. According to Gay et al. (2009), the sample size for survey research is common between 10% and 20% of the whole population because the population of this research is about 250. However, the researcher will ask 120 graduates who have jobs, and they will be given questionnaires to voluntarily answer and complete the questionnaires with their honesty and kindness in case that some of respondents will not return questionnaires. The participants themselves will administer the questionnaires. Nonetheless, an explanation of some questions will help the participants answer with clarity and accuracy. The questionnaires will be written in Khmer language that all the participants can fully understand and answer those questions clearly. Individual interviews. After the researcher uses the questionnaire method, the researcher will employ the interview method that is another alternative to collect data survey. The interview method involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses (Kothari, 2004; Rubin Babbie, 2011). Furthermore, it is a tool that allows the researcher to flexibly move beyond the line of question, and it is helpful if the participants can be observed directly, and allows the participants to give more information (Creswell, 2009). With the analysis of the questionnaire results to find out the main themes of responses, the researcher can identify who the participants are for personal interviews in the second step of the research. Thus eight participants will be carefully selected through the results of questionnaires. They are representatives for civil engineering graduates because they are believed to answer the questionnaire questions accurately and have a deep understanding of the relevance of their study programs to their current jobs. Time for each participant to be interviewed will be during time break in order to avoid work interruptions. The interview method can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured, as to allow the flexibility of questions and answers in order to fully understand graduates perceptions on the curriculum relevance to their current jobs (Williman, 2011). However, the researcher will choose to conduct the personal interview with a small number of graduates with a structured interview model. This is because the research has less experience in the research field. On the other hand, the researcher will gain a clear understanding of information from respondents when respondents understand the purpose of the interview (Kothari, 2004). Despite the advantages of using the method to go beyond simple responses from the participants, there are the limitations of this method (e.g., indirect information filtered by the views of participants, information is gathered in an arranged site rather than in a natural setting, the presence of the researcher which can bias responses, and not all the participants having equal thoughts, feelings and understanding of the same questions and topics) (Creswell, 2009). Similarly, Okojie, Okojie-Boulder and Boulder (n.d.) also added that a limitation of this method is that it can be time consuming and the truth of participant responses will be limited. Therefore, the role and art of the researcher is vital in using the method when the in-depth interviews are the key to get a full understanding of the research topic (Berg, 2009; Creswell, 2009). Ethical Considerations There will be ethical problems in research when the research deals with humans. As Williman (2001) stated that there are two aspects of ethical issues in

Choosing the Right Application of Multiple Intelligence Theory Essay

Throughout the last fifty years, educators have debated what methods of teaching are most effective. These methods include many extremes, from the more traditional method of teaching, in which teachers lecture, students listen, and are expected to learn, to experiential education, which usually requires students to take a hands on approach to every lesson. Both of these extreme methods have too specific of an approach. A combination of learning styles, or multiple intelligences, is required to teach successfully. The introduction of the multiple intelligence theory has positively benefitted teaching by encouraging educators to stimulate each student’s learning strength everyday; regardless of the traditional teaching methods more commonly used. The multiple intelligence theory was created by Howard Gardner, and has been summarized nicely by McCain and Weiten (2004). â€Å"He suggests the existence of a number of relatively autonomous human intelligences. To build his list of separate intelligences, Gardner reviewed the evidence on cognitive capacities in normal individuals, people suffering from brain damage, and special populations, such as prodigies and idiot savants. He concluded that humans exhibit eight intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist† (p. 380). Mr. Gardner has made efforts to prove that every student learns his or her own way. He says that, â€Å"Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students, and perhaps the society as a whole, would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a number of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of means.† (Gardner, 1991, p.... ...sate for their weaker skills, with their stronger ones. Educators debating whether to use the multiple intelligence theory need to consider that â€Å"it involves creating rich experiences in which students with different intelligence profiles can interact with the materials and ideas using their particular combinations of strengths and weaknesses.† (Moran, Kornhaber, & Gardner, 2006, p. 27). The Key School in Indiana believes that all children should have his or her type of intelligence aroused every day (Gardner, 1991, p. 215). Completing a school day knowing that students will have all had a chance to feel like successful learners must be a goal that educators strive to achieve. This is a belief that would allow all learning pieces in a child’s mind to be stimulated, every day. This also builds students into being the most multi-faceted individuals possible.